Melamine

RSC Adv. 2026 May 19;16(29):26948-26958. doi: 10.1039/d5ra05664k. eCollection 2026 May 18.

ABSTRACT

Adulteration in cattle milk is a pervasive issue, where melamine is added to milk due to its high nitrogen content, which ultimately falsely elevates the perceived protein levels of milk. However, its consumption possesses a significant threat, because it can cause severe health hazards. Conventional detection methods are often very expensive and also lack selectivity, and sensitivity towards detection of toxic adulterants. This study addresses these limitations by fabricating a highly selective maleic acid-functionalized silver nanoparticles (MA-AgNPs) based plasmonic nanofilm for highly accurate detection of milk adulterant melamine. At first, chemical reduction method was used to synthesize the AgNP swhich was later functionalized with maleic acid. The functionalized NPs were uniformly coated onto a glass slide to create localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) chip. The plasmonic activity of the NPs along with its selective interaction towards melamine resulted in significant shift in plasmonic peak position, enabling melamine detection below the permissible limit. To determine the optical and physical properties of the synthesized AgNPs, UV-vis spectrophotometer, X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM), Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) studies were conducted. Validation of the milk samples spiked with melamine was performed utilizing the High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) method. The developed LSPR-based platform offered a sustainable and inexpensive solution for detecting milk adulterant melamine, with high sensitivity, selectivity and lower detection limit.

PMID:42170095 | PMC:PMC13187901 | DOI:10.1039/d5ra05664k

Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2026 May 18;170:106131. doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2026.106131. Online ahead of print.

ABSTRACT

Co-exposure to melamine (MEL) and cyanuric acid (CYA) exhibits synergistic toxicity, yet existing toxicological studies have several limitations, including suboptimal doses, short exposure durations, and lack of synergistic effect data in current TDIs and environmental guidelines. To address these gaps, this study conducted a three-stage experiment in male Sprague-Dawley rats to explore nephrotoxicity and dose-response relationships under co-exposure conditions. In Stage 1 (CYA at 10× MEL), the toxicity threshold for MEL was assessed, with trace crystal formation and mild tubular injury first observed at 2 mg/kg bw/day. In Stage 2 (MEL fixed at 4 mg/kg bw/day and CYA ranging from 0.5 to 10× MEL), the toxicity threshold for CYA was evaluated, revealing that a 1:1 ratio of MEL to CYA exhibited the highest nephrotoxic potential. In Stage 3, with exposure duration extended to 12 weeks, the no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) were established as 0.5 mg/kg bw/day (based on tubular injury) and 2 mg/kg bw/day (based on crystal deposition). Applying an uncertainty factor of 200, the derived TDIs for combined exposure were calculated as 2.5 μg/kg bw/day (tubular injury-based) and 10 μg/kg bw/day (crystal deposition-based). These findings represent a critical advancement toward updating the current risk assessment framework for MEL and CYA co-exposure.

PMID:42155661 | DOI:10.1016/j.yrtph.2026.106131

Aquat Toxicol. 2026 May 14;297:107852. doi: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2026.107852. Online ahead of print.

ABSTRACT

This study investigates how the plastic additive composition influences the toxicity of UV-aged polypropylene (PP) microplastics (MPs), nanoplastics (NPs) and leachates toward the green alga Raphidocelis subcapitata. Three materials were compared: an antioxidant-deprived additive-free PP (PPd), a base-stabilized PP containing Irgafos 168 (PPc), and a compounded melamine-polypropylene with Irgafos 168 (PPf). UV-irradiation induced surface oxidation and fragmentation across all samples, releasing NPs (< 1 µm) and ultrafiltrates (< 50 kDa), representing the dissolved and colloidal fraction. Characterization by ATR-FTIR, SEM, and GC/MS confirmed that the material deprived of the antioxidant (PPd) underwent more intense oxidation, displaying a higher abundance of oxygenated functional groups and smaller particle sizes compared to stabilized forms. Toxicity assays with R. subcapitata demonstrated a clear size-dependent trend, with ultrafiltrates > NPs > small MPs (1-50 µm) > large MPs (50-500 µm), yet the magnitude of this toxicity was strongly driven by the additive composition. Growth inhibition, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and membrane depolarization were significantly increased in the absence of antioxidant additives across all size fractions, indicating higher bioavailability and reactivity of UV-generated particle surfaces or leached low-molecular-weight oligomers. But still, stabilized melamine-PP released additional leaching products and its ultrafiltrates enriched in oxidized additives and low-molecular-weight oligomers, caused high cytotoxic and oxidative responses. Overall, these results demonstrate that the additive composition not only modulates polymer stability during UV ageing but also governed the toxicity of plastics particles and leaching products toward aquatic primary producers, underscoring the ecological relevance of plastic ageing processes in aquatic ecosystems.

PMID:42134112 | DOI:10.1016/j.aquatox.2026.107852

Aquat Toxicol. 2026 May 14;297:107852. doi: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2026.107852. Online ahead of print.

ABSTRACT

This study investigates how the plastic additive composition influences the toxicity of UV-aged polypropylene (PP) microplastics (MPs), nanoplastics (NPs) and leachates toward the green alga Raphidocelis subcapitata. Three materials were compared: an antioxidant-deprived additive-free PP (PPd), a base-stabilized PP containing Irgafos 168 (PPc), and a compounded melamine-polypropylene with Irgafos 168 (PPf). UV-irradiation induced surface oxidation and fragmentation across all samples, releasing NPs (< 1 µm) and ultrafiltrates (< 50 kDa), representing the dissolved and colloidal fraction. Characterization by ATR-FTIR, SEM, and GC/MS confirmed that the material deprived of the antioxidant (PPd) underwent more intense oxidation, displaying a higher abundance of oxygenated functional groups and smaller particle sizes compared to stabilized forms. Toxicity assays with R. subcapitata demonstrated a clear size-dependent trend, with ultrafiltrates > NPs > small MPs (1-50 µm) > large MPs (50-500 µm), yet the magnitude of this toxicity was strongly driven by the additive composition. Growth inhibition, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and membrane depolarization were significantly increased in the absence of antioxidant additives across all size fractions, indicating higher bioavailability and reactivity of UV-generated particle surfaces or leached low-molecular-weight oligomers. But still, stabilized melamine-PP released additional leaching products and its ultrafiltrates enriched in oxidized additives and low-molecular-weight oligomers, caused high cytotoxic and oxidative responses. Overall, these results demonstrate that the additive composition not only modulates polymer stability during UV ageing but also governed the toxicity of plastics particles and leaching products toward aquatic primary producers, underscoring the ecological relevance of plastic ageing processes in aquatic ecosystems.

PMID:42134112 | DOI:10.1016/j.aquatox.2026.107852

Food Chem. 2026 May 12;518:149595. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2026.149595. Online ahead of print.

ABSTRACT

Protein corona formation on nanoparticles severely limits the reliability of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for analyte detection in protein-rich food matrices. This study aimed to mitigate protein corona induced signal suppression and improve SERS detection performance. An inorganic salt regulation strategy was developed by introducing salts into gold nanoparticles prior to sample addition, inducing nanoparticle pre-aggregation and avoiding the stabilizing effect of the subsequently formed protein corona. The results showed that weakly adsorbing anions (Cl^-) enhanced melamine detection more effectively than strongly adsorbing anions (I^-) by promoting competitive adsorption between proteins and target molecules. Meanwhile, monovalent Na⁺ ions produced more favorable nanoparticle aggregation than divalent cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ba²⁺). When applied to milk samples, NaCl reduced the detection limit for melamine from 2 mg/L to 0.1 mg/L. These findings provide a simple and cost-effective strategy to improve SERS detection in protein-rich food matrices.

PMID:42134126 | DOI:10.1016/j.foodchem.2026.149595

Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 2026 Nov 5;360:128008. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2026.128008. Epub 2026 Apr 28.

ABSTRACT

Due to its importance and being widely traded food commodities, milk powder is considered the target for adulteration. In the present study, a practical, reagent-free and rapid method to identify any variation in the standard composition of milk powder, and extract useful information with respect to adulteration is proposed. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) combined with two-trace two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2T2D-COS) was explored not only as a high sensitive method but also as a quantitative routine. With the help of 2T2D-COS-FTIR spectroscopy, melamine was determined in milk powder with superior detection level over conventional second derivative FTIR method. It was interesting to observe that the asynchronous correlation intensities of the cross peak at (814, 1741) cm^-1 increased linearly with the difference in concentration of melamine in the two analysed spectra. A calibration curve was established and the concentration of melamine was determined with a limit of detection (LOD) value of 0.46 ppm. The present study represents one method to improve the robustness of the models to make FTIR a more reliable tool for practical applications in the food industry.

PMID:42085820 | DOI:10.1016/j.saa.2026.128008

J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2026 May;36(3):550-558. doi: 10.1038/s41370-026-00844-z. Epub 2026 Apr 27.

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: Breastfeeding can be a source of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) for infants, but limited information exists on exposure to commonly used chemicals such as melamine and bisphenols in nursing infants in the US.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to measure a suite of EDCs in breast milk and evaluate exposure of nursing infants to these chemicals.

METHODS: We analyzed EDCs in breast milk samples collected from 50 women in Seattle, Washington during 2019, including melamine, cyanuric acid, ammeline, ammelide, bisphenol A (BPA), 4-hydroxyphenyl sulfone (BPS), 4,4'-methylenediphenol, (4,4'-hexafluoroisopropylidene) diphenol, fluorene-9-bisphenol, and triclosan. We examined associations of infant age at sample collection and maternal characteristics with log10-transformed chemical concentrations using linear regression. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of each chemical through breast milk was calculated for infants 0-12 months old using our sample median chemical concentrations.

RESULTS: We frequently detected (62-92%) melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan in breast milk. Median concentrations were 0.48 ng/mL melamine, 0.59 ng/mL cyanuric acid, 0.311 ng/mL BPA, 0.012 ng/mL BPS, and 0.072 ng/mL triclosan. Older infant age (>6 versus <6 months) was associated with lower melamine concentrations (-0.41, 95% CI: -0.80, -0.01). Maternal obesity was associated with higher BPA (0.68, 95% CI: 0.14, 1.23) and maternal overweight with higher triclosan (0.43, 95% CI: 0.06, 0.80). Other associations with participant characteristics were suggestive but not statistically significant. EDIs for infants in the average exposure scenario ranged by infant age from 40.3 to 72.8 ng/kg-bodyweight/day for melamine and 86.5-156 ng/kg-bodyweight/day for BPA.

SIGNIFICANCE: We frequently detected melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan in breast milk. EDIs through breastfeeding were generally higher than for other exposure pathways (e.g., dermal uptake, dust ingestion or inhalation), and more work is needed to understand potential health effects of chronic infant exposures to even low levels of these ubiquitous chemicals through breast milk.

IMPACT: This study adds to the limited research to date on endocrine-disrupting chemicals in breast milk, exposure among nursing infants in the US, and differences by infant and maternal characteristics, to further inform cumulative exposure assessment in infants and regulatory thresholds. Melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan were detected with high frequency in breast milk samples in our study, and our study suggests that breast milk is an important exposure pathway for these chemicals among nursing infants. Given the importance of breastfeeding for infant health, our study highlights the need to investigate potential health effects of these chronic exposures.

PMID:42045583 | DOI:10.1038/s41370-026-00844-z

J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2026 May;36(3):550-558. doi: 10.1038/s41370-026-00844-z. Epub 2026 Apr 27.

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: Breastfeeding can be a source of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) for infants, but limited information exists on exposure to commonly used chemicals such as melamine and bisphenols in nursing infants in the US.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to measure a suite of EDCs in breast milk and evaluate exposure of nursing infants to these chemicals.

METHODS: We analyzed EDCs in breast milk samples collected from 50 women in Seattle, Washington during 2019, including melamine, cyanuric acid, ammeline, ammelide, bisphenol A (BPA), 4-hydroxyphenyl sulfone (BPS), 4,4'-methylenediphenol, (4,4'-hexafluoroisopropylidene) diphenol, fluorene-9-bisphenol, and triclosan. We examined associations of infant age at sample collection and maternal characteristics with log10-transformed chemical concentrations using linear regression. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of each chemical through breast milk was calculated for infants 0-12 months old using our sample median chemical concentrations.

RESULTS: We frequently detected (62-92%) melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan in breast milk. Median concentrations were 0.48 ng/mL melamine, 0.59 ng/mL cyanuric acid, 0.311 ng/mL BPA, 0.012 ng/mL BPS, and 0.072 ng/mL triclosan. Older infant age (>6 versus <6 months) was associated with lower melamine concentrations (-0.41, 95% CI: -0.80, -0.01). Maternal obesity was associated with higher BPA (0.68, 95% CI: 0.14, 1.23) and maternal overweight with higher triclosan (0.43, 95% CI: 0.06, 0.80). Other associations with participant characteristics were suggestive but not statistically significant. EDIs for infants in the average exposure scenario ranged by infant age from 40.3 to 72.8 ng/kg-bodyweight/day for melamine and 86.5-156 ng/kg-bodyweight/day for BPA.

SIGNIFICANCE: We frequently detected melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan in breast milk. EDIs through breastfeeding were generally higher than for other exposure pathways (e.g., dermal uptake, dust ingestion or inhalation), and more work is needed to understand potential health effects of chronic infant exposures to even low levels of these ubiquitous chemicals through breast milk.

IMPACT: This study adds to the limited research to date on endocrine-disrupting chemicals in breast milk, exposure among nursing infants in the US, and differences by infant and maternal characteristics, to further inform cumulative exposure assessment in infants and regulatory thresholds. Melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan were detected with high frequency in breast milk samples in our study, and our study suggests that breast milk is an important exposure pathway for these chemicals among nursing infants. Given the importance of breastfeeding for infant health, our study highlights the need to investigate potential health effects of these chronic exposures.

PMID:42045583 | DOI:10.1038/s41370-026-00844-z

Am J Kidney Dis. 2026 Mar 30:S0272-6386(26)00823-1. doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2025.11.017. Online ahead of print.

ABSTRACT

Individuals are increasingly exposed to a diverse array of chemicals through the environment, consumer products, and occupational settings. These exposures, often involving substances with unknown or emerging implications for human health, may pose significant kidney health risks, since many are processed by the kidneys and excreted in the urine. Kidneys are particularly vulnerable to injury from inorganic chemicals, such as lead, cadmium, and mercury, which originate from geogenic sources, but whose exposures are multiplied by anthropogenic activities. Emerging data detail possible kidney risks from chemicals derived entirely from anthropogenic activities as well: e.g., from per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), melamine, and agrochemicals. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) resulting from these environmental exposures is likely underdiagnosed in clinical practice. This review describes the sources of exposure, systemic effects, and potential nephrotoxicity of implicated chemicals, aiming to increase the recognition of environmental exposures as contributors to unexplained new kidney disease. A thorough exposure history and specialized laboratory evaluation may be used for diagnosis in high-risk individuals. Increased clinical awareness and dedicated research efforts are essential to understand and mitigate environmental nephrotoxic exposures and protect kidney health.

PMID:41921740 | DOI:10.1053/j.ajkd.2025.11.017

Anal Methods. 2026 Apr 2;18(13):2622-2631. doi: 10.1039/d6ay00268d.

ABSTRACT

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a toxic compound produced by fungal metabolism, which possesses mutagenicity, teratogenicity, carcinogenicity, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, and genotoxicity, posing a serious potential threat to human and animal health. Therefore, establishing a rapid and accurate detection method for ZEA residues in food is of great significance for ensuring food safety. In this work, a hydrogen-bonded organic framework (HOF) was synthesized via self-assembly using melamine and trimesic acid as building units, followed by doping with rare earth metal europium ions (Eu³⁺) to successfully prepare a europium-functionalized HOF fluorescent sensor (Eu@HOF-TMA) with excellent stability. Eu@HOF-TMA exhibited a specific ratiometric fluorescent response to ZEA. As the ZEA concentration increased, the fluorescent color of the sensor gradually changed from red to blue. Eu@HOF-TMA exhibited a limit of detection as low as 0.57 µM for ZEA, with a response time of less than 30 s, which represents the fastest-response sensor for ZEA reported to date. Moreover, Eu@HOF-TMA could realize quantitative detection of ZEA in corn flour and drinking water with good recovery rates, indicating its excellent potential for practical application. Furthermore, relying on the significant change in fluorescent color of Eu@HOF-TMA after interaction with ZEA, a portable and instrument-free visual detection method for ZEA was constructed using a smartphone RGB color recognition software. Consequently, this work successfully prepared an Eu-HOF ratiometric fluorescent sensor, which provides a new strategy for the sensitive, rapid, and portable detection of ZEA and can be effectively applied to the analysis of ZEA residues in real food samples.

PMID:41847983 | DOI:10.1039/d6ay00268d

Anal Chim Acta. 2026 May 1;1397:345281. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2026.345281. Epub 2026 Feb 20.

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: Ensuring the safety of dairy products requires rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective detection of chemical contaminants.

RESULTS: We developed a green and versatile plasmonic aerogel SERS substrate via covalent cross-linking of κ-carrageenan and dialdehyde cellulose (DAC), decorated with in situ-synthesized silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs). The aerogel exhibits a hydrothermal-responsive structural transition: its 3D porous network enables efficient adsorption of contaminants in aqueous phase, while thermal drying induces a controlled collapse into a 2D layered configuration, uniformly aggregating Ag NPs and generating high-density electromagnetic hotspots. This enables ultrasensitive SERS detection with excellent reproducibility and stability. Detection limits for melamine (Mel) and thiram (TH) in milk are 53 μg/L and 75 μg/L, respectively, and 87 μg/L for Mel in milk powder.

SIGNIFICANCE: These detection limits meet regulatory requirements (EFSA: Mel/TH ≤ 1 mg/kg; Chinese Standard: Mel ≤1 mg/kg, TH ≤ 2 mg/kg). Real milk samples achieved recoveries of 97.6-107.1% (Mel) and 96.3-105.6% (TH), demonstrating high accuracy and reliability. The entire process is completed within 30 min, offering operational simplicity, low cost, environmental friendliness, and a promising platform for on-site monitoring of chemical contaminants in dairy products.

PMID:41796500 | DOI:10.1016/j.aca.2026.345281

ACS Omega. 2026 Feb 11;11(7):12697-12712. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.5c13107. eCollection 2026 Feb 24.

ABSTRACT

In this work, an analytical approach combining voltammetric detection with chemometric analysis was developed to discriminate melamine and urea adulterants in milk products. The electrochemical measurement was performed using a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with acid-functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (f-MWCNTs), which served as the working electrode to obtain the voltammetric fingerprint. This electrode was used to measure the voltammetric response of fresh cow milk adulterated with melamine and urea in 0.1 M KCl as the electrolyte by employing cyclic voltammetry (CV). Based on this result, milk adulterated with melamine and urea displayed broad peaks in the potential range of 0.6-0.8 V versus Ag/AgCl, attributable to the electroactive components in the adulterants and the milk. Additionally, it was found that milk adulterated with melamine exhibited several reduction peaks in the potential range from -0.4 to 0 V versus Ag/AgCl, corresponding to the reduction reaction of components present in melamine. Further chemometric analysis, i.e., principal component analysis, effectively distinguishes cow milk adulterated with melamine and urea. Moreover, the discrimination between cow's milk and its adulterants was successfully achieved using hierarchical cluster analysis, with the lowest melamine concentration detected at 0.24%. Quantitative estimates of milk adulterants were predicted using partial least-squares regression, as determined by root-mean-square error cross-validation (RMSECV), with melamine at 0.0755% and urea at 0.0064%. Therefore, this result demonstrates a promising, cost-effective analytical technique that can be further developed into a novel approach for detecting adulterants in dairy products for practical applications.

PMID:41768680 | PMC:PMC12947226 | DOI:10.1021/acsomega.5c13107

Biosensors (Basel). 2026 Feb 2;16(2):92. doi: 10.3390/bios16020092.

ABSTRACT

The precise and reliable detection of milk adulterants has garnered increased scientific interest owing to the rising incidence of food fraud. Recent years have witnessed substantial advancements in optical and electrochemical biosensors for the quick, sensitive, and on-site determination of adulterants. This review thoroughly emphasizes recent developments in electrochemical biosensors, encompassing amperometric, voltammetric, impedimetric, and photoelectrochemical sensors, alongside optical biosensors such as colorimetric, fluorometric, and plasmonic systems. Significant focus is directed towards determination of critical milk adulterants, including variations in pH, urea, formaldehyde (FA), melamine (MEL), nitrates (NO₃^-), nitrites (NO₂^-), and sulfites (SO₃^2-). The sensing mechanisms, functional nanomaterials, analytical efficacy, and sample-handling techniques of the described biosensors are critically examined. Moreover, key challenges regarding matrix interference, sensor stability, reproducibility, regulatory validation, and large-scalability are addressed. Ultimately, future directions towards economical, portable, wearable, and Internet of Things (IoT)-integrated biosensors for continuous dairy monitoring are discussed, highlighting the necessity for standardized validation protocols and next-generation technologies in food safety.

PMID:41744710 | PMC:PMC12937801 | DOI:10.3390/bios16020092

Materials (Basel). 2026 Jan 8;19(2):267. doi: 10.3390/ma19020267.

ABSTRACT

In the article we investigated the effectiveness of a synergistic system designed to reduce the fire hazard of flexible polyurethane (PUR) foams. The examined system consisted of a carbon-based filler graphene (G), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), or expanded graphite (EG) combined with melamine polyphosphate (MPP). The investigated polyurethane foams (PUR) were synthesized at room temperature via a polycondensation reaction between a polyol and an isocyanate, with an OH: NCO molar ratio of 2:1. Both the carbon fillers and melamine polyphosphate were homogeneously dispersed within the polyol component. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), cone calorimetry, and microcalorimetry were used to evaluate the influence of the fillers on the thermal stability and flammability of the PUR foams. The toxicity of the gaseous products was assessed using a coupled TG-gas analysis system, while the optical density of the evolved gases was determined using a Smoke Density Chamber (SDC). The obtained results demonstrated that the applied synergistic carbon-phosphorus filler system significantly reduced the fire hazard of the tested PUR foams. In particular, the EG5-MPP system enabled the formation of self-extinguishing materials.

PMID:41597978 | PMC:PMC12843171 | DOI:10.3390/ma19020267

Antioxidants (Basel). 2026 Jan 17;15(1):122. doi: 10.3390/antiox15010122.

ABSTRACT

Melamine, a nitrogen-rich industrial chemical, has raised increasing concern as an emerging environmental contaminant with potential reproductive toxicity. While its nephrotoxic effects are well established, the direct impact of melamine on human sperm remains poorly defined. In this study, we investigated the in vitro effects of melamine on human sperm, under both capacitating and non-capacitating conditions. Functional analyses revealed that the exposure to 0.8 mM melamine, the highest non-cytotoxic concentration in vitro, significantly compromised sperm motility and disrupted key capacitation processes, including tyrosine phosphorylation patterns, cholesterol efflux, and the acrosome reaction. Molecular assessments demonstrated melamine-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, characterized by COX4I1 downregulation, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, and altered reactive oxygen species production. In parallel, gene expression analyses revealed the activation of apoptotic pathways, with the upregulation of BAX and downregulation of BCL2, changes that were more pronounced during capacitation. Furthermore, melamine exposure significantly increased sperm DNA fragmentation and denaturation, indicating genotoxic stress. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that even low, non-cytotoxic concentrations of melamine compromise sperm function by disrupting capacitation, mitochondrial activity, and genomic integrity. This study identifies capacitation as a critical window of vulnerability and underscores the need to consider melamine as a potential environmental risk factor for male reproductive health.

PMID:41596180 | PMC:PMC12837316 | DOI:10.3390/antiox15010122

Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2026 Jan;25(1):e70403. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.70403.

ABSTRACT

Milk and milk powder are central to global nutrition, yet remain vulnerable to adulteration and contamination. Adulteration using water, urea, ammonium sulfate, thiocyanates, detergents, melamine, or compositional changes with whey and carbohydrate fillers undermines nutritional quality, reduces consumer confidence, and challenges regulatory control, particularly in infant formula products. A field-ready analytical platform that is rapid, nondestructive, and capable of multi-adulterant surveillance is urgently needed across diverse dairy matrices. This review consolidates advances in Raman spectroscopy for milk and milk powder authentication reported from 2015 to early 2025, covering conventional Raman, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), Fourier-transform Raman, hyperspectral Raman imaging, confocal/mapping approaches, and portable systems. We critically evaluate preprocessing and chemometrics such as principal component analysis, partial least squares regression, and partial least squares discriminant analysis, as well as machine-learning and deep-learning pipelines for classification and quantification. Species-specific applications including cow, buffalo, goat, camel, donkey, human breast milk (macronutrients, sex-linked profiles, microplastics, antibiotics), and milk powder workflows are compared with attention to matrix effects, fluorescence interference, and validation practices. Raman enables chemically specific fingerprints of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, whereas common adulterants present diagnostic bands. SERS substrates routinely extend sensitivity to ppm-ppb levels and suppress fluorescence, supporting rapid detection of melamine, urea, ammonium sulfate, thiocyanates, benzoate, and selected antibiotics. Hyperspectral imaging provides spatially resolved maps, differentiating multi-adulterant mixtures and thermo-structural behavior in powders. Chemometric models achieve high accuracy for classification and concentration prediction, whereas deep-learning architectures improve robustness under nonlinear matrix variation and instrument drift. Challenges persist in substrate reproducibility, calibration transfer, fluorescence in lipid-rich systems, and detection of emerging adulterants and trace preservatives under field conditions. Future progress will hinge on multi-excitation instruments with adaptive laser power control, universal SERS substrates integrating plasmonic metals, dielectric shells, and molecular recognition, and standard operating procedure grade preprocessing. Industrial reliability requires calibration-transfer strategies, rigorous validation, and explainable artificial intelligence to link decisions to chemically meaningful features, supporting regulatory acceptance and auditability. Portable Raman and SERS systems can aid nutritional profiling and contaminant surveillance in breast milk, whereas Fourier-transform Raman and hyperspectral imaging mitigate fluorescence and map heterogeneity in powders. Raman spectroscopy, augmented by SERS, hyperspectral imaging, and intelligent analytics, offers a rapid, nondestructive, label-free, and scalable platform for dairy authentication. Continued innovation will enable real-time, on-site detection of single and multiple adulterants, strengthening consumer confidence, industrial quality assurance, and regulatory compliance while advancing global food safety.

PMID:41578976 | PMC:PMC12831472 | DOI:10.1111/1541-4337.70403

Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2026 Jan;25(1):e70403. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.70403.

ABSTRACT

Milk and milk powder are central to global nutrition, yet remain vulnerable to adulteration and contamination. Adulteration using water, urea, ammonium sulfate, thiocyanates, detergents, melamine, or compositional changes with whey and carbohydrate fillers undermines nutritional quality, reduces consumer confidence, and challenges regulatory control, particularly in infant formula products. A field-ready analytical platform that is rapid, nondestructive, and capable of multi-adulterant surveillance is urgently needed across diverse dairy matrices. This review consolidates advances in Raman spectroscopy for milk and milk powder authentication reported from 2015 to early 2025, covering conventional Raman, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), Fourier-transform Raman, hyperspectral Raman imaging, confocal/mapping approaches, and portable systems. We critically evaluate preprocessing and chemometrics such as principal component analysis, partial least squares regression, and partial least squares discriminant analysis, as well as machine-learning and deep-learning pipelines for classification and quantification. Species-specific applications including cow, buffalo, goat, camel, donkey, human breast milk (macronutrients, sex-linked profiles, microplastics, antibiotics), and milk powder workflows are compared with attention to matrix effects, fluorescence interference, and validation practices. Raman enables chemically specific fingerprints of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, whereas common adulterants present diagnostic bands. SERS substrates routinely extend sensitivity to ppm-ppb levels and suppress fluorescence, supporting rapid detection of melamine, urea, ammonium sulfate, thiocyanates, benzoate, and selected antibiotics. Hyperspectral imaging provides spatially resolved maps, differentiating multi-adulterant mixtures and thermo-structural behavior in powders. Chemometric models achieve high accuracy for classification and concentration prediction, whereas deep-learning architectures improve robustness under nonlinear matrix variation and instrument drift. Challenges persist in substrate reproducibility, calibration transfer, fluorescence in lipid-rich systems, and detection of emerging adulterants and trace preservatives under field conditions. Future progress will hinge on multi-excitation instruments with adaptive laser power control, universal SERS substrates integrating plasmonic metals, dielectric shells, and molecular recognition, and standard operating procedure grade preprocessing. Industrial reliability requires calibration-transfer strategies, rigorous validation, and explainable artificial intelligence to link decisions to chemically meaningful features, supporting regulatory acceptance and auditability. Portable Raman and SERS systems can aid nutritional profiling and contaminant surveillance in breast milk, whereas Fourier-transform Raman and hyperspectral imaging mitigate fluorescence and map heterogeneity in powders. Raman spectroscopy, augmented by SERS, hyperspectral imaging, and intelligent analytics, offers a rapid, nondestructive, label-free, and scalable platform for dairy authentication. Continued innovation will enable real-time, on-site detection of single and multiple adulterants, strengthening consumer confidence, industrial quality assurance, and regulatory compliance while advancing global food safety.

PMID:41578976 | PMC:PMC12831472 | DOI:10.1111/1541-4337.70403

Arch Toxicol. 2026 Apr;100(4):1551-1564. doi: 10.1007/s00204-025-04289-5. Epub 2026 Jan 17.

ABSTRACT

Either melamine or cyanuric acid alone has low toxicity, but melamine-cyanuric acid crystals co-crystals melamine cyanurate (MC) is reported to cause renal toxicity and has latent effects on central nervous system. This study investigated the neurotoxic effects and mechanism of MC on hippocampus-dependent cognitive and synaptic function using a rat model administered MC during early postnatal stage. We tested the spatial learning and memory ability in Morris water maze (MWM) test and recorded hippocampal long-term potential (LTP) at CA1 synapses. Furthermore, we examined whether autophagy was involved in MC-induced cognitive, synaptic and oxidative damages. We found that MC given at a dose of 30 mg/kg/day for 28 consecutive days significantly impaired spatial performance without affecting locomotion or short-term memory ability. Hippocampal LTP at Shaffer-collateral-CA1 synapses was dramatically depressed while the presynaptic form of synaptic plasticity paired-pulse facilitation (PPF) and basal neurotransmission were not changed. Meanwhile, MC declined the expression postsynaptic GluN2A but not GluN2B subunits of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and the postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) level was also reduced. Autophagy in the hippocampus was down-regulated by MC, as indicated by reduction in the levels of Beclin-1and LC3-II, and the ratio of LC3II/LC3I. However, up-regulation of autophagy by rapamycin could effectively alleviate cognitive deficits and synaptic dysfunction. Meanwhile, retrieval of autophagic activity restored oxidation-antioxidation homeostasis, by elevating MC-declined superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and suppressing MC-enhanced superoxide anion radical, hydroxyl free radical and malondialdehyde (MDA). Additionally, MC elevated the caspase-3 activity and caused the apoptotic cell death, which was mitigated by rapamycin treatment. However, inhibition of autophagy further deteriorated MC-induced these impairments. Therefore, we demonstrate that MC induces cognitive impairments at least due to oxidative damage and synaptic dysfunction through postsynaptic actions, which can be further attributed to the down-regulation autophagy.

PMID:41545533 | DOI:10.1007/s00204-025-04289-5

Food Chem. 2026 Feb 28;503:147778. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.147778. Epub 2025 Dec 28.

ABSTRACT

Herein, we constructed a SERS sensing platform based on a core-shell material, AuNRs@ZnO-Ov, for the detection of melamine in milk. The high Raman signal intensity can be attributed to the synergistic effect between the electromagnetic enhancement and chemical enhancement. The FDTD and molecular energy level calculations have verified the amplification of the electromagnetic field and the process of charge transfer. The AuNRs@ZnO-Ov exhibited high SERS performance with an enhancement factor (EF) of 7.08 × 10⁶, and a limit of detection (LOD) of 4.06 × 10^-8 M for melamine with good uniformity and reproducibility. Furthermore, the SERS platform delivered good linearity across a wide concentration range of 5 × 10^-8 to 5 × 10^-4 M. The proposed method has been successfully used for the detection of melamine in milk samples. This study provides a potential strategy for the construction of novel SERS substrates for molecules sensing in food.

PMID:41475260 | DOI:10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.147778

Foods. 2025 Dec 13;14(24):4292. doi: 10.3390/foods14244292.

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to investigate the occurrence of melamine and cyanuric acid in milk, baby food, and protein supplements collected in Croatia. A total of 56 samples were collected during 2022 and 2023 from retail stores in Zagreb, Croatia. Sample preparation involved acetonitrile extraction, followed by analysis using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Cyanuric acid concentrations above the limit of quantification (LOQ) were found in five milk samples (33.3% detection frequency), with a range from 0.26 to 0.39 mg/kg and a mean concentration of 0.31 mg/kg. In protein supplements, melamine was detected above the LOQ in six samples (23% detection frequency), with a mean concentration of 0.30 mg/kg and concentrations ranging from 0.20 to 0.57 mg/kg. No concentrations above the LOQ were found in baby food samples. All detected values were below the EU maximum limits (2.5 mg/kg for general food and 1.0 mg/kg for baby food). The accuracy and reliability of the method were verified using certified reference material. This is the first study to confirm the presence of melamine and cyanuric acid in protein supplements and milk on the Croatian market. The detected levels do not indicate a potential health risk to consumers.

PMID:41464998 | PMC:PMC12732134 | DOI:10.3390/foods14244292

Alzheimers Dement. 2025 Dec;21 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):e102250. doi: 10.1002/alz70855_102250.

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: Several findings have highlighted the importance of diet and ecotoxic compounds on aging. Melamine (Mel), a widely documented food adulterant, has demonstrated toxicity in multiple organs of the human body, including the brain. However, its neurotoxic effects on aging neurons remain unexplored. This study aims to bridge this gap by investigating the in-vitro neurotoxic impact of Mel in a D-galactose (DG)-induced aging model of neuronal SH-SY5Y cells.

METHOD: In the present study, the SH-SY5Y cells were administered a toxic dose of Mel and DG individually and in combination (Mel + DG) to determine their potential for neurotoxicity. The analysis involved measuring cell viability through MTT assay and morphological examination via neurite length assessment. Furthermore, we evaluated the antioxidant status of the cells by examining catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and total antioxidant activities. Subsequent investigations of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and caspase-3 (Casp3) activity were also performed.

RESULT: The co-administration with Mel and DG resulted in the highest cell death compared to individual treatments of Mel or DG and control untreated cells. The combined exposure of Mel and DG also led to significant neurite shrinkage and ROS accumulation, indicating exacerbated toxicity. Moreover, SOD, CAT, and total antioxidant levels were significantly reduced in the co-treatment (Mel + DG) group than in Mel-only or DG-only treated group, showing excessively hampered antioxidant state. Additionally, the Casp3 activity was markedly elevated in the cell group jointly treated with Mel and DG, as compared to Mel or DG alone treated groups, signifying a heightened apoptotic reaction.

CONCLUSION: This study provides early insights into the increased neurotoxic potential of Melamine (Mel) in an aging model of neuronal cells. The outcomes reveal that Mel consumption in the elderly may contribute to a higher risk of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

PMID:41436745 | PMC:PMC12727672 | DOI:10.1002/alz70855_102250

Neurotox Res. 2025 Dec 16;43(6):53. doi: 10.1007/s12640-025-00773-z.

ABSTRACT

Melamine, an industrial chemical linked to neurotoxicity, prompted this study investigating taurine's neuroprotective effects in rat brains. The study examined the impact of taurine on brain metabolic enzymes, neurochemicals, autophagy-related proteins, and oxidative-inflammatory pathways. Twenty-eight rats were divided into four groups (seven rats per group): control (saline), taurine (100 mg/kg), melamine (50 mg/kg/day), and melamine plus taurine. Taurine administration (30 min post-melamine) continued daily for 28 days, starting on day 29 to day 56, which allowed for the assessment of its restorative effect against ongoing melamine-induced neurotoxicity. Non-spatial recognition memory was evaluated using the novel-object recognition memory test (NORT). Following this, brain neurochemical status, metabolic enzymes, autophagic proteins, and oxidative-inflammatory markers were assessed postmortem. Results demonstrated that taurine improved cognitive function in melamine-treated rats, as evidenced by increased exploration of novel objects in the NORT. Taurine protected against melamine-induced oxidative stress. Additionally, taurine reduce tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β expression, modulated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and beclin-1, restored brain metabolic enzyme activity, enhanced neurotransmitter levels, and prevented alterations in α-synuclein and paraoxonase 1 (PON1). In conclusion, taurine protects against melamine-induced neurotoxicity in rats by improving autophagic response, downregulating apoptosis and inflammation markers, inhibiting oxidative stress, and potentially restoring brain metabolic enzyme activities and neurotransmitter levels.

PMID:41398135 | DOI:10.1007/s12640-025-00773-z

Environ Res. 2026 Feb 1;290:123493. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2025.123493. Epub 2025 Dec 3.

ABSTRACT

Global aquaculture is expanding rapidly, but the improper discharge of tetracycline (TC) in effluent water has triggered an increase in bacterial resistance, posing a threat to aquatic ecosystems and human health. Traditional graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) has limitations like fast photogenerated charge recombination and small specific surface area, restricting its application. This study synthesized Ca-doped (g-C₃N₄) (CaCN) via a CaCl₂-modified melamine molten-salt method, then prepared kaolin/CaCN-x composites by calcining calcined kaolin and CaCN (mass ratios x = 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.17) at 500 °C for 330 min. Materials were characterized by XRD, SEM/EDX, BET, UV-Vis DRS, and XPS. Photocatalytic tests evaluated effects of catalyst dosage, TC concentration, pH, humic acid, and temperature on 20 mg/L TC (pH 7 ± 0.2) degradation. Radical quenching, LC-MS, and toxicity assays (using Microcystis aeruginosa, monitoring algal density and chlorophyll a) clarified active species, degradation pathways, and product toxicity; real water and cycling tests verified application potential. Kaolin/CaCN-0.25 showed optimal performance: 98.7 % TC removal, degradation rate constant 0.03185 min^-1 (3.36 × that of pure g-C₃N₄), specific surface area 77.573 m²/g, and bandgap 2.68 eV ·O₂^- and ·OH dominated TC degradation via two pathways; product toxicity decreased after 60 min. The composite removed >97 % TC in real water, retained 90 % efficiency after 3 cycles, and maintained structural stability. This work provides a low-cost in-situ photocatalytic technology, offering material and theoretical support for TC remediation in aquaculture tailwater.

PMID:41349662 | DOI:10.1016/j.envres.2025.123493

J Dairy Sci. 2026 Mar;109(3):2122-2130. doi: 10.3168/jds.2025-27071. Epub 2025 Dec 4.

ABSTRACT

The focus of study was to investigate physicochemical, microbiological, and quality characteristics of raw standardized milk collected from different northern parts of India. Results showed that physicochemical test values for pH, acidity, moisture, fat, SNF, total soluble solids, protein were varied from 6.62 to 6.66, 0.133% to 0.121%, 84.17% to 86.01%, 5.09% to 6.59%, 8.47% to 9.23%, 13.56% to 15.82%, 36.45% to 36.78%, and 0.61% to 0.73%, respectively. These results were in accordance with Codex International Standard and the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. The Reichert-Meissl value, Butyro-refractometer reading, and sodium content of raw standardized milk varied from 28.76% to 29.36%, 41.31% to 41.63%, and 432 to 597 mg/L, respectively. Various adulterants tests were performed for different milk samples; negative results were obtained for all but 2 samples, which had adulterants such as sugar, skim milk, and antibiotic residues. The results of melamine and aflatoxin M₁ of standardized milk varied between 58.17 and 90.83 mg/100 mL and 0.17 and 1.26 µg/kg, respectively. Microbiological analysis showed that in 6 samples of standardized milk, the aerobic plate count and SCC were found to be higher than the upper limit set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (i.e., 10 × 10⁵ and 25 × 10⁴, respectively). Two samples of standardized milk contained higher melamine, TS, and psychotropic count as compared with world standards. The sensory scores for 3 of the standardized milk samples (samples L-1, L-8 and L-9) varied from 5 to 8. This study helps to analyze the quality of milk, which is being tainted with various adulterants because of a lack of supervision, unsanitary facilities, or for financial gain.

PMID:41349831 | DOI:10.3168/jds.2025-27071

Mater Des. 2025 Nov;259:114910. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2025.114910. Epub 2025 Oct 13.

ABSTRACT

Approximately 50% of resin-based dental restorations fail within ten years, mainly due to secondary caries and material fractures. Incorporating self-healing microcapsules containing resin-based agents that polymerize upon release offers a promising strategy to repair microcracks and extend restoration longevity. Poly(urea-formaldehyde) (PUF) microcapsules are commonly used, but formaldehyde cytotoxicity remains a concern. This study developed alternative microcapsules by integrating melamine into the polymeric shell (PUMF) and functionalizing surfaces with methacrylate (TMSPM) or thiol (MPTMS) silanes, with or without a TEOS pre-coating, to reduce formaldehyde release and enhance biocompatibility. Microcapsules were synthesized via double-emulsion, encapsulating triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA), and characterized for morphology, mechanical stability, functionalization efficiency, formaldehyde release, and cytotoxicity. Melamine increased mechanical and morphological stability, surface roughness, and core retention, especially under functionalization, but also raised formaldehyde release in unmodified capsules. Functionalization with TMSPM and MPTMS significantly reduced formaldehyde release from both PUF and PUMF capsules. Metabolic assays showed dental pulp stem cells were more sensitive to TEGDMA, while fibroblasts were affected by TEGDMA combined with prolonged formaldehyde exposure. Overall, melamine-reinforced functionalized microcapsules exhibit improved stability, controlled formaldehyde release, and enhanced biocompatibility, supporting their potential as next-generation self-healing dental materials.

PMID:41311641 | PMC:PMC12652498 | DOI:10.1016/j.matdes.2025.114910

Toxics. 2025 Nov 4;13(11):950. doi: 10.3390/toxics13110950.

ABSTRACT

With the widespread use of emerging contaminants such as melamine (MEL) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) as alternatives to traditional flame retardants, their ubiquitous presence in the environment has raised concerns about human internal exposure and health risks. Urine, as a critical matrix for biomonitoring, enables accurate assessment of internal exposure to these contaminants and their metabolites. This review systematically summarizes the research progress on urinary biomonitoring of MEL and its derivatives (cyanuric acid (CYA), ammeline (AMN), ammelide (AMD)) and OPE metabolites. It covers analytical methods (sample pretreatment including enzymatic hydrolysis and extraction, instrumental detection via HPLC-MS/MS/UPLC-MS/MS, and method validation), exposure characteristics (global spatial differences, population disparities among sensitive groups like children and e-waste workers, and temporal variations such as postprandial peaks), and health risk assessments. Results show that MEL and CYA are widely detected in urine (detection rates > 97%), with CYA dominating total MEL (66.2-80%); OPE metabolites exhibit regional compositional differences, e.g., bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEP) in Shenzhen and diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) in New York. Current exposure levels are generally safe, but 2-12% of sensitive individuals face potential risks. This review highlights key challenges (method standardization, limited hydroxylated OPE standards) and provides directions for future research to establish a comprehensive exposure-health risk evaluation system.

PMID:41304502 | PMC:PMC12656575 | DOI:10.3390/toxics13110950

Biosensors (Basel). 2025 Nov 11;15(11):754. doi: 10.3390/bios15110754.

ABSTRACT

Nanotechnology offers powerful new tools to enhance food quality monitoring and safety assurance. In the food industry, nanoscale materials (e.g., metal, metal oxide, carbon, and polymeric nanomaterials) are being integrated into sensory systems to detect spoilage, contamination, and intentional food tampering with unprecedented sensitivity. Nanosensors can rapidly identify foodborne pathogens, toxins, and chemical changes that signal spoilage, overcoming the limitations of conventional assays that are often slow, costly, or require expert operation. These advances translate into improved food safety and extended shelf-life by allowing early intervention (for example, via antimicrobial nano-coatings) to prevent spoilage. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the types of nanomaterials used in food sensory applications and their mechanisms of action. We examine current applications in detecting food spoilage indicators and adulterants, as well as recent innovations in smart packaging and continuous freshness monitoring. The advantages of nanomaterials-including heightened analytical sensitivity, specificity, and the ability to combine sensing with active preservative functions-are highlighted alongside important toxicological and regulatory considerations. Overall, nanomaterials are driving the development of smarter food packaging and sensor systems that promise safer foods, reduced waste, and empowered consumers. However, realizing this potential will require addressing safety concerns and establishing clear regulations to ensure responsible deployment of nano-enabled food sensing technologies. Representative figures of merit include Au/AgNP melamine tests with LOD 0.04-0.07 mg L^-1 and minute-scale readout, a smartphone Au@carbon-QD assay with LOD 3.6 nM, Fe₃O₄/DPV detection of Sudan I at 0.001 µM (linear 0.01-20 µM), and a reusable Au-Fe₃O₄ piezo-electrochemical immunosensor for aflatoxin B1 with LOD 0.07 ng mL^-1 (≈15 × reuse), alongside freshness labels that track TVB-N/amine in near-real time and e-nose arrays distinguishing spoilage stages.

PMID:41294764 | PMC:PMC12650047 | DOI:10.3390/bios15110754

Food Res Int. 2025 Dec;222(Pt 1):117513. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117513. Epub 2025 Sep 18.

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to evaluate the levels of inorganic contaminants -lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As)-as well as melamine in animal-derived milk (ADM) and plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs) available on the Turkish market. A total of 54 milk samples, representing 12 brands, were collected from four supermarkets in Ankara in June 2023. Contaminant levels were quantified using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Melamine was detected in the majority of samples, with only two PBMAs-coconut-based and soy-based-exceeding 50 μg/kg. All PBMA and ADM samples were below the European Union (EU) limit for Pb (20 μg/kg), although one cow milk sample surpassed 10 μg/kg. Cd concentrations above 10 μg/kg were found in 10.3 % of cow milk samples, particularly in ultra-high-temperature (UHT) processed products. Hg was undetectable in four samples and remained below 5 μg/kg in all others. As levels were consistently below 10 μg/kg. Hg and As levels varied significantly by processing method, while Pb and As levels differed depending on the type of packaging. No significant correlation was observed between protein or fat content and contaminant concentrations. Health risk assessments conducted for 6-year-old children indicated that both daily dietary intake (DDI) and hazard quotient (HQ) values for all toxic elements and melamine were below the threshold of 1, suggesting no significant non-carcinogenic risk. Overall, the findings indicate that both milks are chemically safe for young children. However, continued monitoring is recommended, particularly for melamine and arsenic, due to their potential for cumulative toxicity.

PMID:41267225 | DOI:10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117513

Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2025 Nov 20. doi: 10.1039/d5em00516g. Online ahead of print.

ABSTRACT

Globally, recycling of otherwise waste materials into new products is desired. End-of-life tyres are increasingly incorporated into new pavement materials but leaching of entrained chemicals from such products is not well quantified. Chemical concentrations in runoff from pavements may pose environmental and human health risks. High liquid-solid ratio, batch-agitated leaching is standard practice for assessing leachability and hazards of chemicals-of-potential-concern in contaminated soil and wastes but is not reflective of important exposure scenarios and may mislead. A new static surface leaching procedure (SSLP) is introduced that is more representative of chemical leaching from pavement reuse materials whilst in contact with rainfall/runoff water. SSLP was evaluated over 2-14 d intervals against batch-agitated leaching for two rubberised pavement products containing 10-fold different proportions of crumbed end-of-life tyres. Although, batch leaching showed high mass removal of 1,3-diphenylguanidine (1,3-DPG, 34%) and hexamethoxymethylmelamine (HMMM, 30%), both batch- and SSLP-leached concentrations of 1,3-DPG, HMMM and N¹-(4-methylpentan-2-yl)-N⁴-phenylbenzene-1,4-diamine quinone (6PPD-Q) were below ECOSAR-predicted toxicity thresholds for fish and daphnids. SSLP highlighted differences in chemical leachability based on rubber content of pavement products and offers a method applicable to other scenarios, such as PFAS leaching from concrete/asphalt pavements. The SSLP was shown to approximate one-dimensional leaching from the surface of the pavement and to be dominated by diffusive processes, thus yielding a simple repeatable approach.

PMID:41263588 | DOI:10.1039/d5em00516g

J Colloid Interface Sci. 2026 Feb 15;704(Pt 2):139454. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2025.139454. Epub 2025 Nov 10.

ABSTRACT

Over the past decades, self-healing poly(urea-formaldehyde) (PUF) microcapsules have been extensively utilized across diverse fields, including textiles, construction, aerospace, and biomedical systems. However, concerns remain regarding their mechanical stability and potential formaldehyde toxicity. Here, we investigate the incorporation of melamine and the high-toughness acrylamide monomer N,N-Dimethylacrylamide (DMAM) to enhance the thermomechanical stability and cytocompatibility of PUF microcapsules containing either triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) or a TEGDMA-DMAM blend at 20 wt%. Melamine was incorporated into the shell precursor up to 10 wt%, and the resulting microcapsules were characterized for morphology, mechanical, thermal, and biological properties. In general, melamine increased shell roughness and physicochemical stability, with 5 wt% providing the best balance. DMAM improved shell elasticity, and the combined use of DMAM and melamine yielded the highest elasticity (57 %). Formaldehyde release, quantified via a Purpald assay, increased with melamine content (up to 21 μM after one week), yet dental pulp stem cell (DPSC) viability remained ≥95 % across all tested concentrations. Direct exposure to microcapsules maintained DPSC viability above 85 % for all formulations. Healing efficiency was ≥82 % in all tested materials, with DMAM-containing systems showing a ∼ 20 % improvement compared to TEGDMA-only formulations. These results demonstrate that melamine and DMAM enhance microcapsule durability while preserving cytocompatibility, supporting their potential use in biomedical applications such as self-healing dental composites.

PMID:41232250 | PMC:PMC12622392 | DOI:10.1016/j.jcis.2025.139454

Water Res. 2026 Jan 15;289(Pt A):124867. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2025.124867. Epub 2025 Oct 28.

ABSTRACT

Organic contaminants and dissolved organic matter (DOM) inevitably coexist and are exposed to sunlight in the aquatic environments, underscoring their interrelated roles in degradation processes. Hexa(methoxymethyl)melamine (HMMM), a widely used tire additive, has been frequently detected in aquatic environmental media, and exhibits a chemical structure that suggests potential ecological risks. DOM significantly influences the contaminant fate by acting as a photosensitizer and by generating reactive species. Photolysis is an essential environmental transformation pathway affecting both HMMM and DOM. In this study, HMMM and DOM were studied as an integrated system to investigate their UV-induced photolysis behavior, identify key degradation factors, and assess the toxicity of transformation products. Results demonstrate that both DOM and HMMM undergo transformation during photolysis. Notably, DOM generally inhibits the photodegradation of HMMM, while simultaneously facilitates a reductive degradation pathway initiated by reactive reducing species (RRS, including ³DOM* and e_aq^-). Our findings comprehensively provide evidence for RRS generation, supported by direct detection via electron capture signals and indirect indicators such as photolysis kinetics within HMMM-DOM system. These results refine the current understanding of photolysis pathways for tire-related contaminants in aquatic environments and emphasize the importance of evaluating contaminants and DOM as an integrated system in environmental photochemistry.

PMID:41176979 | DOI:10.1016/j.watres.2025.124867

Sci Rep. 2025 Oct 30;15(1):37930. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-22712-w.

ABSTRACT

Green analytical chemistry is an innovative approach to making analytical experiments more environmentally friendly, safer for humans, and less toxic to the environment by utilizing eco-friendly reagents and chemicals. Diabetics are twice as likely to experience hypertension compared to nondiabetics. Individuals with both conditions face a significantly increased risk of early microvascular and macrovascular complications. Regular monitoring helps ensure the drug concentration remains within the therapeutic range, maximizing its effectiveness. Herein, a high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method is provided to evaluate and isolate the studied drugs in the presence of their toxic impurities. The study involves the simultaneous administration of two crucial drugs: the antidiabetic metformin and the antihypertensive bisoprolol. We have investigated their pure form in spiked human plasma, as well as their interaction while their possible toxic impurities are present as melamine and cyanoguanidine. The optimal conditions were achieved using a mobile phase consisting of 0.1 M SDS, 0.1% ortho-phosphoric acid in water, and 10% isopropanol at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The pH was adjusted to 5.0 using triethylamine, and the column temperature was maintained at 25 °C on a symmetry C18 column (Kinetex 1.7µ C18 100A, 2.1-mm × 50-mm), with detection at 230 nm. Following the International Conference of Harmonization guideline, the method was successfully validated within the linearity range of 1-25 µg/mL for metformin and bisoprolol. Notably, the LOQ was determined to be 0.92 µg/mL for metformin and 0.54 µg/mL for bisoprolol. The established method epitomizes accuracy, cost-effectiveness, selectivity, and reproducibility. The evaluation of the suggested approaches' level of greenness was meticulously conducted using a variety of assessments, including the Analytical eco-scale system, the Modified Green Analytical Procedure Index (MoGAPI), The Analytical Green Star Area (AGSA), Blueness evaluation using BAGI tools, Carbon footprint (CaFRI), Click Analytical Chemistry Index (CACI) and White analytical chemistry (WAC).

PMID:41168405 | PMC:PMC12575862 | DOI:10.1038/s41598-025-22712-w

Arch Microbiol. 2025 Oct 18;207(12):320. doi: 10.1007/s00203-025-04525-7.

ABSTRACT

Melamine is a nitrogen rich compound belonging to the triazine family. The excessive use of melamine is one of the major concerns due to its ability to cause nephrotoxicity, and acute, and chronic kidney disease. In the present study, two fungal strains namely Penicillium hetheringtonii AJ6 and Fusarium sp. MDF3 was isolated using the enrichment technique. These strains were screened for their melamine tolerance ability and could tolerate up to 20 mg/L (P. hetheringtonii), and 29 mg/L (Fusarium sp.) of the contaminant. The degradation studied in an aqueous medium proved that Penicillium hetheringtonii and Fusarium sp. could degrade 78% (initial substrate concentration, 14 mg/L; final substrate concentration, 3.08 ± 0.20 mg/L), and 32% (initial substrate concentration, 20 mg/L; final substrate concentration, 13.6 ± 1.78 mg/L) of introduced melamine respectively. The strains degraded melamine into 2-Propen-1-ol, and 5-methyl-2-hexanone. The degradation kinetics study showed that strains followed zero-order model (P. hetheringtonii), and pseudo second-order model (Fusarium sp.) of kinetics. The significance of kinetic models was assessed using p-value which was reported as 0.007 (zero-order model) and 0.005 (pseudo second-order model). The extracellular enzyme studies revealed that the laccase enzyme system could be responsible for the degradation of melamine. Therefore, the study suggests that the strain P. hetheringtonii AJ6 can be used for melamine remediation from contaminated surfaces.

PMID:41108415 | DOI:10.1007/s00203-025-04525-7

J Appl Toxicol. 2025 Oct 11. doi: 10.1002/jat.4953. Online ahead of print.

ABSTRACT

Graphene oxide (GO) and carbon nanotube (CNT)-based nanomaterials have attracted significant interest in various industrial and biomedical applications due to their unique physicochemical properties; however, concerns about their potential toxicity, especially when modified with additives like melamine (M), remain largely unresolved. This study investigates the toxicological effects and underlying mechanisms of graphene oxide-melamine (GO-M) and carbon nanotube-melamine (CNT-M) nanoparticles in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and larvae. To this end, developmental toxicity, phenotypic and behavioral changes, as well as histopathological and immunofluorescence alterations, were evaluated following acute exposure to GO-M and CNT-M nanoparticles at concentrations of 5, 10, and 20 mg/L. Results showed that both nanoparticles delayed larval hatching, particularly at higher concentrations (10 and 20 mg/L). Malformations were observed at 20 mg/L in the GO-M group and at 10 and 20 mg/L in the CNT-M group. Additionally, significant changes in larval length and eye area were observed at all concentrations for both nanoparticles. Behavioral assessments revealed that CNT-M exposure at 10 and 20 mg/L significantly impaired head sensorimotor reflexes, while all concentrations affected tail reflexes. In contrast, GO-M exposure did not significantly alter sensorimotor responses. These findings suggest differential toxic mechanisms and neurobehavioral effects of GO-M and CNT-M nanoparticles during early zebrafish development.

PMID:41074713 | DOI:10.1002/jat.4953

Food Chem Toxicol. 2026 Jan;207:115773. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2025.115773. Epub 2025 Sep 30.

ABSTRACT

Exclusive Enteral Nutrition (EEN) can induce remission in Crohn's disease (CD). We completed a pilot study using novel reverse-engineered EEN (RE-EEN), a whole food smoothie in place of commercial liquid formula (EEN) which contains food additives to improve shelf stability and palatability. In a four week trial with RE-EEN, we reported 80 % of patients went into clinical remission after four weeks. We hypothesized RE-EEN would decrease environmental toxin exposure through reduction of processing food intake. Biosamples were collected at baseline and at weeks two, four, and eight during the RE-EEN study. Urinary heavy metals were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and urinary phthalate metabolites and melamine by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. For our primary analysis, change in baseline was calculated using a paired t-test for week four. Analysis was also completed for all weeks on RE-EEN using a generalized least squares model. Results were expressed as fold change ± standard error mean. Paired t-testing demonstrated a statistically significant (p < 0.05) effect on molybdenum (Mo) with a fold change of 0.17 ± 0.15, an 83 % reduction following RE-EEN treatment. Our results suggested an effect of arsenic (As) with fold change of 0.23 ± 0.26 (p = 0.12), a 77 % reduction following RE-EEN treatment. Our results also suggested an effect of cobalt (Co) with a fold change of 3.12 ± 3.12 fold, a 212 % increase following RE-EEN therapy (p = 0.16). With inclusion of all weeks on RE-EEN, Mo and As were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Overall, we observed favorable shifts in urinary heavy metals by week four, and no effects were suggested in phthalate and melamine analysis. We saw increased precision in a sensitivity analysis when including all weeks for treatment. This is the first study to examine environmental toxicants in relation to whole foods smoothie diet in pediatric CD. RE-EEN dietary intervention shows promise in reducing chemical exposures and may contribute to CD remission. Notable limitations to this research include small sample size and absence of a control group. Further studies are necessary to assess the impact of RE-EEN diet on environmental toxicant exposure.

PMID:41038373 | PMC:PMC12640686 | DOI:10.1016/j.fct.2025.115773

J Hazard Mater. 2025 Sep 16;498:139914. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139914. Online ahead of print.

ABSTRACT

Landfill leachate (LFL) typically contains a wide range of potential pollutants, making it difficult to treat and inefficient in resource utilization. This work developed a new multifunctional evaporator that integrated photothermal evaporation with photocatalytic degradation to enable in situ purification and water recovery. The device was fabricated by immobilizing a hydrothermally synthesized Nickel Oxide- Titanium Dioxide- Carbon Nanotube (NiO-TiO₂-CNT) composite on a melamine sponge via sodium alginate crosslinking, forming a synergistic evaporation-degradation interface. Under 1 kW·m⁻² solar irradiation, the system achieved an evaporation rate of 2.25 kg·m⁻²·h⁻¹ , where the addition of 1 mmol·L⁻¹ PMS boosted phenol removal efficiency to 90 %. When applied to real LFL, COD was reduced from 4266 to 53 mg·L⁻¹ , and phosphate was completely removed to below detection limits (<0.01 mg·L⁻¹). Although ammoniacal nitrogen levels remained relatively high at 354 mg·L⁻¹ , post treatment phytotoxicity tests involving irrigation of wheat with leachate resulted in a 90 % germination rate, which increased to 100 % after dilution. This indicated the treated leachate was safe and could potentially be used as a nitrogen-rich liquid fertilizer. A techno-economic analysis showed that the system could be operated at a cost of only 10.33 USD per metric ton, significantly lower than conventional treatments. This work thus provides a cost-effective sustainable strategy for simultaneous pollutant control, water reuse, and ecological restoration of landfill sites.

PMID:40974682 | DOI:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139914

Talanta. 2026 Feb 1;298(Pt A):128832. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2025.128832. Epub 2025 Sep 11.

ABSTRACT

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) based on noble metal nanoparticles has garnered significant attention in analytical chemistry due to its simplicity and rapidity for low-concentration detection. Although widely applied in fields such as environmental monitoring, food safety, and biomedical diagnostics, the impact of silver nanoparticle shape on SERS performance remains insufficiently studied. Furthermore, traditional stationary solid and liquid SERS approaches are limited by inconsistent reproducibility and temporal variations in uniformity, respectively. To overcome these limitations, we introduce a simple continuous and online Ag SERS platform that employs spherical silver colloids within a capillary-Teflon tube system for dynamic, real-time analyte detection. Continuous fluid flow reduces variations in colloids, ensuring uniformity, while the enclosed system limits dynamic behaviors of colloids, enhancing stability. This platform demonstrates outstanding stability, with relative standard deviation of 2.12 %. Its versatility is showcased through the quantitative detection of melamine in milk, 6-thioguanine in serum, and histamine in beer, demonstrating its capability for accurate, real-time detection in complex matrices. This continuous and online Ag SERS platform represents a significant advancement in reliable, high-performance analyte detection, offering promising prospects for real-time analytical applications and providing a cost-effective, scalable solution for widespread use.

PMID:40972276 | DOI:10.1016/j.talanta.2025.128832

RSC Adv. 2025 Sep 10;15(39):32833-32870. doi: 10.1039/d5ra05615b. eCollection 2025 Sep 5.

ABSTRACT

Emerging contaminants (ECs), including pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, heavy metals, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), are becoming increasingly crucial to identify because of their toxicity, persistence, and resistance to traditional water treatment techniques. Even if they are accurate, traditional analytical methods are frequently costly, time-consuming, and instrumentally complex. With its ease of use, quick visual reaction, high sensitivity, and affordability, colorimetric sensing based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has become a viable substitute in this regard for on-site EC monitoring. The synthesis, functionalization, and use of AuNPs for the colorimetric detection of new pollutants have advanced recently, as this review illustrates. Because of their special localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) characteristics, AuNPs can interact with target analytes to produce noticeable color changes. We talk about different synthesis techniques, such as the reduction of citrate and borohydride, and how they affect the optical characteristics and particle shape. Additionally, we investigate functionalization techniques that provide selectivity toward ECs using thiol ligands, DNA aptamers, polymers, and chelating agents. A thorough analysis is conducted of colorimetric detection techniques, encompassing both aggregation-based and non-aggregation-based systems. Detecting ions (cation, anion), pesticides, metals (heavy metals, alkali and alkaline earth metals, coinage metals, rare-earth metals), food (formalin, melamine, rhodamine dye, etc.), pathogens, mycotoxins, oligonucleotides (DNA, nucleic acids, protein, etc.), glucose, and drugs (antibiotics, allergens, etc.) has been examined in this review. Lastly, we discuss present issues such as probe stability and matrix interference and suggest future paths for the development of portable and field-deployable sensors.

PMID:40936959 | PMC:PMC12422228 | DOI:10.1039/d5ra05615b

RSC Adv. 2025 Sep 10;15(39):32833-32870. doi: 10.1039/d5ra05615b. eCollection 2025 Sep 5.

ABSTRACT

Emerging contaminants (ECs), including pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, heavy metals, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), are becoming increasingly crucial to identify because of their toxicity, persistence, and resistance to traditional water treatment techniques. Even if they are accurate, traditional analytical methods are frequently costly, time-consuming, and instrumentally complex. With its ease of use, quick visual reaction, high sensitivity, and affordability, colorimetric sensing based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has become a viable substitute in this regard for on-site EC monitoring. The synthesis, functionalization, and use of AuNPs for the colorimetric detection of new pollutants have advanced recently, as this review illustrates. Because of their special localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) characteristics, AuNPs can interact with target analytes to produce noticeable color changes. We talk about different synthesis techniques, such as the reduction of citrate and borohydride, and how they affect the optical characteristics and particle shape. Additionally, we investigate functionalization techniques that provide selectivity toward ECs using thiol ligands, DNA aptamers, polymers, and chelating agents. A thorough analysis is conducted of colorimetric detection techniques, encompassing both aggregation-based and non-aggregation-based systems. Detecting ions (cation, anion), pesticides, metals (heavy metals, alkali and alkaline earth metals, coinage metals, rare-earth metals), food (formalin, melamine, rhodamine dye, etc.), pathogens, mycotoxins, oligonucleotides (DNA, nucleic acids, protein, etc.), glucose, and drugs (antibiotics, allergens, etc.) has been examined in this review. Lastly, we discuss present issues such as probe stability and matrix interference and suggest future paths for the development of portable and field-deployable sensors.

PMID:40936959 | PMC:PMC12422228 | DOI:10.1039/d5ra05615b